Teaching media visual principles

CHAPTER 5

VISUAL PRINCIPLES

Ø  The roles of visuals in instruction

Visuals definitely play is to provide a concrete referent or ideas. Words don’t look or sound (usually) like the thing they stand for, but visuals are iconic –that is, they have some reseblance to the thing they represent. Iconic i.e more easily to be remembered as compared to words. Visuals can also motivate learners by attracting their attention, holding their attention, and generating emotional responses.

Visuals can simplify information that is difficult to understand. Diagram can make it easy to store and retrieve such information. Finally, visuals provide a redundant channel; that is, when accompanying spoken or written verbal information they present that information in a different modality, giving some learners a chance to comprehend visually what they might miss verbally.

Ø  Visual literacy

The term literacy once was used only to refer to reading and writing of verbal information, the term of visual literacy to refer to the learned ability to interprer visual messages accurately and to create such messages.

Visual literacy can be developed through two major approaches:

•      Input strategies: Helping learners to decode, or “read” visuals proficiently by practicing visual analysis skills.

•      Output strategies: Helping learners to encode, or “write” visuals –to express themselves and communicate with others.

·         Decoding: Interpreting Visuals

Seeing a visual does not automatically ensure that one will learn from it. Learners must be guided toward correct decoding of visuals. One aspect of visual literacy, then, is the skill of lnterpreting and creating meaning from surrounding stimuli.

•      Developmental Effects

Many variables effect how a learner decodes a visual. Prior to the age of 12, children tend to interpret visuals section by section rather as a whole. In reporting what they see in a picture, they are likely to single out specific elements within the scene. Students who are older, however, tend to summarize the whole scene and report a conclusion about the meaning of the picture.

•      Cultural Effects

In teaching, we must keep in mind that the act of decoding visuals may be affected by the viewer’s cultural background. Different cultural groups may perceive visual materials in different ways.

•      Visual Preferences

In selecting visuals, teachers have to make appropriate choices between the sorts of visuals that are preferred and those that are most effective. People do not necessarily learn best from the kinds of pictures they prefer to look at. For instance, research on picture preferences indicates that children in upper elementary grades tend to prefer color to black and white and to choose photograps over drawings; younger children tend to prefer simple illustrations, whereas older children tend to prefer moderately complex illustration.

·         Encoding: Creating Visuals

Another route to visual literacy is through student creation of visual presentation. Just as writing can spur reading, producing media can be a highly effective way of understanding media.

Most older students have access to a camera. For example, you could encourage students to present reports to the class by carefully selecting sets of the camera, which can help them to develop their aesthetic talents. The video camcorder is another convenient tool for students to practice creating and presenting ideas and event pictorially. Or, students can scan photos or drawings into a computer-generated presentation using software such as PowerPoint.

Ø  Goals of Visual Design

For purposes of information and instruction, good visual design tries to achieve at least four basic goals in terms of improving communication:

•      Ensure Legability:  The goal of good visual design is to remove as many obstacles as possible that might impede transmission of your message.

•      Reduce Effort: As a designer you want to convey your message in such a way that viewers expend little effort making sense out of what they are seeing and are free to use most of their mental effort for understanding the message itself.

•      Increase Active Engagement: Your message doesn’t stand a chance unless people pay attention to it. So a major goal is to make your design as appealing as possible –on get viewers attention and to entice them into thinking about your message.

•      Focus Attention: Having enticed viewers into your display, you then face the challenge of directing their attention to the most important parts of your message.

Ø  Processes of Visual Design

Teachers, designers and others who create visual and verbal / visual displays  face a series of design decisions how to arrange the elements to achieve their goals. We will group these into three set.

1. Elements: Selecting and assembling the verbal/visual elements to incorporate into the display.

•   Visual Elements

• Realistic

Realistic visual show the actual object under study. For example, the color photograph of a covered wagon.

• Analogic

Analogic visuals convey a concept or topic by showing something else and implying a similarity. Teaching about electricity flow by showing water flowing in series and parallel pipes is an example of using analogic visuals.

• Organizational

Organizational visuals include flowchart, graph, maps, schematics, and classification charts.

•   Verbal Elements

Most displays incorporate some type of verbal information in addition to visuals.

• Letter Style
• Number of Lettering Styles
• Capitals
• Color of Lettering
• Size of Lettering
• Spacing Between Letters
• Spacing Between Lines

•      Elements That Add Appeal

• Surpise
• Texture
• Interaction

2. Pattern: Choosing an underlying pattern for the elements of the display.

•      Alignment

•      Shope

•      Balance

•      Style

•      Color Scheme

•      Color Appeal

3. Arrangement: Arranging the individual elements within the underlying pattern.

•      Proximity

•      Directionals

•      Figure-Ground Contrast

•      Consistency

Ø  Visual Planning Tools

•      Storyboard

In storyboard, you place on a card or piece of paper a sketch or some other simple representation of the visual you plan to use along with the narration and production notes that link the visuals to the narration. After developing a series of such cards, place them in rough sequence on a flat surface or on a storyboard holder.

•      Types of Lettters

The letters are easy to use because most come with an adhesive backing; however, they are rather expensive.

•      Drawing, Sketching, and Cartooning

Drawings, sketching, and cartoons are visuals that can enhance learning.

Ø  Digital Images

As computer technologies advance, creating visual image has moved into the digital world. Students may use digital cameras to create originals or may transfer images into digital formats using scanners.

•      Digital Cameras

•      Scanners

•      Photo CDs

•      Caution When Editing Images

Teaching Media

MEDIA AND MATERIAL
Materials don’t have to be digital or expensive to be useful. Small can indeed be beautiful, and inexpensive can be effective! In fact, in some situations –for instance, isolated, rural areas; teaching locations that lack electricity; programs or schools with a low budget –these simpler materials may be the only media that make sense to use.
Manipulatives.
          Real objects –such as coins, tools, artifacts, plants, and animals –are some of the most accesible, intriguing, and involving materials in educational use. Real objects may be used as is, or you may modify them to enhance instruction. Examples of modification include the following:
1.      Cutaways: Devices such as machines with one side cut away to allow close observation of the inner workings.
2.      Specimens: Actual plants, animals, or parts there of preserved for convenient inspection.
3.      Exhibits: Collections of artifacts, often of a scientific or historical nature, brough together with printed information to illustrate a point.
Computer Programs and Manipulatives
            The recent addition of manipulatives and student hands-on materials included in computer software packages is an example of how traditional nonprojected media are being incorporated into software programs to provide powerful learning experiences.
Field Trips.
          The field trip, an excursion outside the classroom to study real processes, people, and objects, often grows out of students’ need for firsthand experiences. It makes it possible for students to encounter phenomena that cannot be brought into the classroom for observation and study.
Printed Materials.
          Printed materials include textbooks, fiction and nonfiction books, booklets, pamphlets, study guides, manuals, and worksheets, as well as word processed documents prepared by students and teachers. Textbooks have long been the foundation of classroom instruction. The other forms of media discussed in this book are frequently used in conjuction with and as supplements to printed materials.
Free and Inexpensive Materials.
            These free and inexpensive materials can supplement instruction in many subjects; they can be the main source of instruction on certain topics. For example, many videotapes are available for loan without a rental fee; the only expense is the return postage. By definition, any material that you can borrow or acquire permanently for instructional purposes without a significant cost, usually less that a couple of dollars, can be referred to as free or inexpensive.
1.      Sources
2.      Obtaining Materials
3.      Appraising Materials

Display Surfaces.
          How you display your visuals will depend on a number of factors, including the nature of your audience, the nature of your visuals, the instructional setting, and, of course, the availability of the various display surfaces.
1.      Chalkboards
2.      Multipurpose Boards
3.      Copy Boards
4.      Pegboards
5.      Bulletin Boards
6.      Cloth Boards
7.      Magnetic Boards
8.      Flip Charts
9.      Exhibits
·         Displays
·         Dioramas

Chapter 3 the assure model

THE ASSURE MODEL
All effective instruction requires careful planning. Teaching with instructional media and technology is certainly no exception. This chapter examines how to plan systematically for the effective use of instructional media and technology. We have constructed a procedural model to which we have given the acronym ASSURE - it is intended to be effective effective instruction.
ANALYZE LEARNERS
If instructional media and technology are to be used effectively, there must be a match betweeri the character of the learner and the content of the media, and materials. The Est step in the ASSURE our ers. Several factors, however, are critical for making a model, therefore, is an analysis of your auditing. It is not feasible to analyze every trait of your language, good methods and media decisions:
-General characteristics
-Specific entry competencies
-Learning styles
STATE OBJECTIVES
The second step in the ASSURE model is to state the oectives of instruction. What learning is the learner outcome expected to achieve? More precisely, what is the ability to learn the completion of the statement not to be instructed to put into the lesson but what is ought to get out of the lesson. An objective is the state of what will be achieved, not how it will be achieved.
SELECT METHODS, MEDIA, AND MATERIALS
A systematic plan for using media and technology ce demands that the methods, media, and material is systematically selected in the first placc. The selection process has three steps: (1) deciding on the appropriate method for the given learning tasks, (2) choosing a format that is suitable for outgoing methods, and (3) screening, modifying, or designing specific methods. - terials within that media format.
UTILIZE MEDIAAND MATERIALS
 The next step in the ASSURE Model is the use of your media material by the stidents and teacher. The recommended procedures are based on extensive research. The generai principles have remäined remarkably constant. The main difference has been to do with who is using materials and how to learn from students-centered learning in students who will be using the material - als themselves as individuals or in small groups - rather than watching as the teacher presents them to awhole class.
REQUIRE LEARNER  PARTICIPATION
 Educators have long realized that active learning in the learning process enhances learning. In the early 1900s John Dewey urged reorganization of the curriculum and instruction to make student plore central participation. Late :, in the 1950s and 1960s, employing experiments behaviorist approaches to instruction that provide for constant reinforcement of desired behavior is more effective than instruction in behavioral behavior.
EVALUATE AND REVISE
 The final component of the ASSURE model for effective learning is evaluation and revision. Often the most frequently aspect of lesson design, evaluation and revision is the essential component to the development of quality instruction. There are many purposes for evaluation. Often the only form seen in education is a paper-and-pencil test, claimed to be used for assessment of student achievement. We will discuss two purposes here assesing learner achievements and evaluating methods and media

Chapter 2 technologies for learning

Chapter 2 Technologies for Learning

WHAT ARE TECHNOLOGIES FOR LEARNING?

            Technologies for learning define as specific learning pattern that serve reliably as template for achieving demonstrably effective learning. In chapter 1 there was provided a definition of technology that differentiated between hard technology, products such as computers and satellites, and soft technology, Processes or ways of thinking about problems.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

            Cooperative learning involves small heterogeneous groups of students working together to achieve a common academic goal or task while working together to learn collaboration and social skills. Group members are interdependent that is, each is dependent on the others for achieving their goal. As technology for learning, cooperative learning involves active participation by all students.

GAMES

            The term game, simulation, and simulation game are often used interchangeably. A game is an activity in which participants follow prescribed rules that differ from those of real life as they strive to attain a challenging goal. Although most teachers do not design ne instructional games from scratch, they often to adapt existing game by changing the subject matter while retaining the game’s structure. The original game is referred to as frame game because its framework lends itself to multiple adaptation. When one is modifying a frame game, the underlying structure of a familiar game provides the basic of play, the dynamic of the process.

SIMULATIONS

            A simulation is an abstraction or simplification of some real life situation or process. In simulations, participants usually play a role that involves them in interactions with other people or with elements of the simulated environment. A business management simulation, for example, might put participants into the role of production manager of a mythical corporation, provides them with statistic about business conditions, and direct them to negotiate a new labor contract with the union bargaining team. The device employed to represent a physical system in a scaled down form is referred to as a simulator.

            Role play refers to a type of simulation in which the dominant feature is relatively open-ended interaction among people. In essence, a role play ask someone to imagine that she is another person or is in particular situation; the person then behaves as the other person would or in the way situation seems to demand. The purpose is to learn something about another kind of person or about the dynamic of an unfamiliar situation.

SIMULATION GAMES

            A simulation game combines the attribute of a simulation (role playing, a model of reality) with the attribute of a game (striving toward a goal, specific rules). Like a simulation, it may be relatively high or low in its modeling reality. Like a game, it may or may not entail competition.

            In recent years, sport psychologists and educational psychologists have developed new theories questioning the value and necessity of competition in human development. They contend if children are nurtured on cooperation, acceptance, and success in a fun oriented atmosphere they develop strong, positive self-concepts. Out of this new awareness has come the “new games” movement, generating hundreds of cooperative games that challenge the body and imagination but that depend on cooperation for success.

LEARNING CENTERS

            The learning center is a self-contained environment designed to promote individual or small group learning around a specific task. A learning center may be simple as a table and some chairs around which students discuss, or it may be as sophisticated as several networked computers used by a group for collaborative research and problem solving.

PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

            Programmed instruction was chronologically the first technology for learning and is an explicit application of principles of learning theory operant conditioning or reinforcement theory. The earliest programmed instruction text arranged the frame across the page in horizontal strips. The student could check the correct response for each question only by turning the page. Later this method was relaxed, allowing the frames to be arranged vertically, as in conventional printed pages, and became known as linear programming.

            The pattern of frames in intrinsic programming resembled the branches of a tree, it became known as branching programming. The major advantage of the branching format is that learners who catch on quickly can move through the material much more efficiently, following the “prime path.”

PROGRAMMED TUTORING

            Programmed tutoring (also referred to as structured tutoring) is a one to one method of instruction in which the tutor’s responses are programmed in advance in the form of carefully structured printed instruction.

PROGRAMMED TEACHING

            Programmed teaching, also known as direct instruction, is an attempt to apply the principles of programmed instruction in a large-group setting. In this approach, a whole class is broken into smaller groups of 5 to 10 students. These smaller groups are led through a lesson by a teacher, paraprofessional, or student peer following a highly prescriptive lesson plan.

PERSONALIZED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION

            The final technology for learning is the Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), sometimes are referred to as the Keller Plan after Fred Keller, who developed it. It can be described as a template for managing instruction. It is derived from the same roots as mastery learning, the idea that all students can succeed achieve basic mastery but need different amounts of time and practice to get there. A major principle of mastery learning is that students should not be permitted to go on to later units of study until they have demonstrated that they have mastered the prerequisite knowledge and skills.

Instructional Media And Technologies for Learning

Media, Technology, and Learning
Throughout history, media and technology have influenced education. Most recently, for example, the computer and the Internet have invaded instructional setting. Such tools offer powerful possibilities for improving learning. The teacher, however, makes the difference in the intergration of media and technology into this process.
The roles of instructor and learner are clearly changing because of the influence media and technology in the classroom. No longer are teachers and textbooks the source of all knowledge. The teacher becomes the director of the knowledge. The teacher becomes the director of the knowledge-access process. Along the continuum of instructional strategies, sometimes the teacher will elect to provide direct instructional experiences for students. At other times, with a few keystrokes students can explore the world, gaining access to libraries, other teachers and students, and a host of resources to obtain the knowledge they seek.
It is essential that, as the guide for learning, the teacher examine media and technology in the context of learning and its potential impact on the outcome for student. This chapter concern the nature of learning, the way the role and responsibility of the teacher change with the approach to instruction used, and tthe importance of media and technology within that process.
1. LEARNING
Learning us the development of new knowledge, skills, or attitudes as an individual interacts with information and the environment. The learning environment includes the physical facilities, the psychological atmosphere, instructional methods, media, and technology. Learning takes place all the time. We learn things by walking down the street, watching TV, surfing the Net, conversing with other people, or just by observing what goes on around us. This type of incidental learning is not our major interest as education professionals. Rather, we are concerned primarily with the learning that takes place in response to our instructional efforts. How we design and arrange instruction has a great deal to do not only with what is learned but also with how learners use what they learn.
Psychological Perspectives on Learning
How instructions view the role of media and technology in the classroom depens very much on their beliefs about how people learn. Over the past century there have been several dominant theories of learning.
Behaviorist Perspective. In the mid 1950n, the focus of lerning research started to shift from stimulus design (communication) to learner response to stimuli.
Cognitivist Perspective. Behaviorists refuse to speculate on what goes on internlly when lerning takes place.
A close look at the work of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget illustrates how a cognitive psychologist views the mental processes individuals use in responding to their environment. The three key concepts of mental depelopment in Piaget’s work are schemata, assimilation, and accommodation (Piaget, 1977).
Constructivist Perspective. Constructivism is amovement that extends beyond the beliefs of the cognitivist. It considers the engagement of students in meningful experiences as the essence of learning.
Social-Psychological Perspective. Social psychology is another well-established tradition in the study of instruction and learning.
Approaches to Instruction. Instruction is the arrangement of information and environment to facilitate. By environment we mean not only where instruction takes place but also the methods, media, and technology needed to convey in formation and guide the learners study.
A Philosophical Perspective on Learning. More than a few observers have argued that the wide spread use of istructional hardware in the classroom leads to treating students as if they were machines rather than human beings that is that technology dehumamizes the teaching/learning process.
2. MEDIA
A medium (plural, media) is a channel of communication. Derived from the Latin from the Latin word meaning “between” the term refrs to anything that carries information between a source an a receiver. Examples include video, television, diagrams, orinted materials, computers, and instruction.
The Roles Of Media In Learning
Media can serve many roles in learning. The instruction may be dependent on the presence of a teacher (i.e., instructor directed). Even in this situation, media may be heavily used by the teacher. On the other hand, the instruction may notrequire a teacher.
-          Instruction-Directed Instruction : the most common use of media in an instructional situation is for supplemental support of the “live” instructor in the classroom. Certainly, properly designed instructional media can enhance and promote learning and support teacher-based instruction. But their effectiveness depends on the instructor.
-          Instructor-Independent Instruction : media can also be used effectively in formal education situations where a teacher is not available or is working with other students.
-          Media Protfolio : A protfolio is a collection of students work that illustrates growth over a period of time. Portfolios often include such artifacts as students-produced illustrated books, videos, and audiovisual presentations.
-          Thematic Illustrasion : Many teacher are now organizing their instruction around themes or anchors. Elementary teachers in particular are intergrating content and skills from many subjects. At the secondary level, teams of teachers from different content reas are working together to show the overlap of their course content.
-          Distance Education : Distance education is a rapidly developing approach to instruction worldwide. The approaches has been widely used by business, industrial, and medical organizations.
-          Education for Exceptional Students : Media play an importance role in the education of students with exceptionalities. Adapted and specially designed media can contribute enormously to effective instruction of all students and can help them achieve at their highest potential regardless of their innate biities.
3.   METHODS
Traditionaly, instructional methods have been describe as “presentation forms” such as lectures and discussions. In this text, we will differentiate between instructional methods and instructional media. Methods are the procedures of instruction selected to help learners achieve the objectives or to internalize the content or message. Media then, as already defined, are carriers of information between a source and a receiver.


Ten Method Categories
            The general categoies of methods are presentation, demonstration, discussion, drill-and-practice, tutorial, cooperative learning, gaming, simulation, discovery, and problem solving. Virtually any of the media described throughout this book can be used to implement of these methods.
-          Presentation. In a presentation method, a source tells, dramatizes, orotherwise disseminates in information to learners.
-          Demonstration. In this methd of instruction, learners view a real or lifelike example of the skill or procedure to be learned (Figure 1.12).
-          Discussion. As a method, discussion involves the exchange of ideas and opinions among students and teacher.
-          Drill-and-Practice. In drill-and-practice learners are led through a series of practice exercises designed to increase fluency in a new skill or to refresh an existing one.
-          Tutorial. Tutoring is most often done one on one and is frequently used to teach basic skill, such as reading and arithmatic.
-          Cooperative Learning. A growing body of research supports the claim that students learn from each other when they work on projects as a team (Slavin, 1989-1990).
-          Gaming. Gaming provides a playful environment in which learners follow prescribed rules as they strive to attain a challenging goal.
-          Simulation. Simulation involves learners confronting a scaled-down version of a real-life situation.
-          Problem Solving. Lifelike problem can provide the starting point for learning.

 4.  TECHNOLOGY
The word technology has always had a variety of connotations, ranging from mere hardware to a way of solving problem. The latter is exemplified in the often quoted definition given by econimist Jhon Kenneth Galbraith: “The systematic application of scientific or other organized knowledge to practical task” (Galbraith, 1967, p. 12)